P-51 Mustang Totally Explained

Everything about P-51 Mustang totally explained

The North American Aviation P-51 Mustang was an American long-range single-seat fighter aircraft that entered service with Allied air forces in the middle years of World War II. The P-51 became one of the conflict's most successful and recognizable aircraft.
   The P-51 flew most of its wartime missions as a bomber escort in raids over Germany, helping ensure Allied air superiority from early 1944. It also saw limited service against the Japanese in the Pacific War. The Mustang began the Korean War as the United Nations' main fighter, but was relegated to a ground attack role when superseded by jet fighters early in the conflict. Nevertheless, it remained in service with some air forces until the early-1980s.
   As well as being economical to produce, the Mustang was a fast, well-made and highly durable aircraft. The definitive version of the single-seat fighter was powered by the Packard V-1650-3, a two-stage two-speed supercharged 12-cylinder Packard-built version of the legendary Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, and (the P-51D) were armed with six of the aircraft version of the .50 caliber (12.7 mm) Browning machine guns.
   After World War II and the Korean conflict, many Mustangs were converted for civilian use, especially air racing. The Mustang's reputation was such that, in the mid-1960s, Ford Motor Company's Designer John Najjar proposed the name for a new youth-oriented coupe after the fighter.

Genesis

In 1939, shortly after World War II began, the British government established a purchasing commission in the United States, headed by Sir Henry Self. Along with Sir Wilfrid Freeman, who, as the "Air Member for Development and Production", was given overall responsibility for RAF production and research and development in 1938, Self had sat on the (British) Air Council Sub-committee on Supply (or "Supply Committee"), and one of Self's many tasks was to organize the manufacture of American fighter aircraft for the RAF. At the time the choice was very limited: none of the U.S. aircraft already flying met European standards; only the Curtiss P-40 Tomahawk came close. The Curtiss plant was running at capacity, so even that aircraft was in short supply. North American Aviation (NAA) was already supplying their Harvard trainer to the RAF, but were otherwise underutilized. NAA President "Dutch" Kindelberger approached Self to sell a new medium bomber, the B-25 Mitchell. Instead, Self asked if NAA could manufacture the Tomahawk under license from Curtiss.
Kindelberger replied that NAA could have a better aircraft with the same engine in the air in less time than it would take to set up a production line for the P-40. By now the executive head of the British Ministry of Aircraft Production (MAP), Freeman ordered 320 aircraft in March 1940. On 26 June 1940, MAP awarded a contract to Packard to build modified versions of the Rolls-Royce Merlin engines under licence; in September, MAP increased the first production order by 300.

Design and development

The result of the MAP order was the NA-73X project (from March 1940). The design followed the best conventional practice of the era, but included two new features. One was a new NACA-designed laminar flow wing, which was associated with very low drag at high speeds. Another was the use of a new radiator design (one Curtiss had been unable to make work) that used the heated air exiting the radiator as a form of jet thrust in what is referred to as the "Meredith Effect". Because North American lacked a suitable wind tunnel, it used the GALCIT 10-foot wind tunnel at Cal Tech. This led to some controversy over whether the Mustang's cooling system aerodynamics were developed by North American's engineer Edgar Schmued or by Curtiss, although historians and researchers dismiss the allegation of stolen technology; such claims are likely moot in any event, as North American had purchased Curtiss’ complete set of P-40 and XP-46 wind tunnel data and flight test reports for US$56,000.
While the United States Army Air Corps could block any sales it considered detrimental or not in the interest of the United States, the NA-73 represented a special case. In order to ensure deliveries were uninterrupted, an arrangement was eventually reached where the RAF would get its aircraft in exchange for NAA providing two free examples to the USAAC for evaluation.
The prototype NA-73X was rolled out just 117 days after the order was placed, and first flew on 26 October 1940, just 178 days after the order had been placed — an incredibly short gestation period. In general, the prototype handled well and the internal arrangement allowed for an impressive fuel load. It was armed with four .30 caliber Browning (7.62 mm) and two .50 M2 Browning (12.7 mm) machineguns in the wings and two .50 M2s in the chin.

Allison-engined Mustangs

Mustang I/P-51

It was quickly evident that performance, although exceptional up to 15,000 feet, was markedly reduced at higher altitudes. This deficiency was due largely to the single speed, single stage supercharger of the Allison V-1710 engine, where power diminished rapidly above the critical altitude rating. Prior to the Mustang project, the USAAC had Allison concentrate primarily on turbochargers in concert with General Electric; these proved to be exceptional in the P-38 Lightning and other high-altitude aircraft, in particular, the Air Corp's four-engine bombers. Most of the other uses for the Allison were for low-altitude designs, where a simpler supercharger would suffice. The turbocharger proved impractical in the Mustang, and it was forced to use the inadequate supercharger available. Still, the Mustang's advanced aerodynamics showed to advantage, as the Mustang I was about 30 mph faster than contemporary Curtiss P-40 fighters, using the same powerplant. The Mustang I was 30 mph faster than the Spitfire Mk VC at 5,000 ft and 35 mph faster at 15,000 ft, despite the British aircraft's more powerful engine.
   The first production contract was awarded by the British for 320 NA-73 fighters, named Mustang I by the British. Two aircraft of this lot delivered to the USAAC for evaluation were designated XP-51. About 20 Mustang Is were delivered to the RAF, making their combat debut on 10 May 1942. With their long range and excellent low-level performance, they were employed effectively for tactical reconnaissance and ground-attack duties over the English Channel, but were thought to be of limited value as fighters due to their poor performance above 15,000 ft.
   A second British contract called for 300 more (NA-83) Mustang I fighters. In September 1940, 150 aircraft, designated NA-91 by North American, were ordered under the Lend/Lease program. These were designated by the USAAF as P-51 and initially named Apache, although this was soon dropped and the RAF name, Mustang, adopted instead. The British designated this model as Mustang IA. The Mustang Mk IA was identical to the Mustang Mk I except that the wing-mounted machine guns were removed and replaced with four long-barrelled 20 mm Hispano Mk II cannon.
   A number of aircraft from this lot were fitted out by the USAAF as F-6A photoreconnaissance aircraft. The British would fit a number of Mustang Is with similar equipment. Also, two aircraft of this lot were fitted with Packard-built Merlin engines mounted behind the cockpit, in the fashion of the P-39. This was identified as Model NA-101 by North American and XP-78 by the USAAF, later redesignated XP-51B.

A-36 Apache/Invader

At the same time, the USAAC was becoming more interested in ground attack aircraft and had a new version ordered as the A-36 Apache, which included six .50 M2 Browning machine guns, dive brakes and the ability to carry two 500 lb (230 kg) bombs.
In early 1942, the USAAF ordered 500 aircraft modified as dive bombers that were designated A-36A (NA-97). This model became the first USAAF Mustang to see combat. One aircraft was passed to the British who gave it the name Mustang I (Dive Bomber).

Merlin-engined Mustangs

P-51B and P-51C

In April 1942, the RAF's Air Fighting Development Unit (AFDU) tested the Mustang and found its performance inadequate at higher altitudes. As such it was to be used to replace the Tomahawk in Army Cooperation Command squadrons but the commanding officer was so impressed with its maneuverability and low-altitude speeds that he invited Ronnie Harker from Rolls Royce's Flight Test establishment to fly it. Rolls-Royce engineers rapidly realized that equipping the Mustang with a Merlin 61 engine with its two speed, two stage supercharger would substantially improve performance and started converting five aircraft as the Mustang X. The Vice-Chief of the Air Staff, Air Marshal Sir Wilfrid R. Freeman, lobbied vociferously for Merlin-powered Mustangs, insisting two of the five experimental Mustang Xs be handed over to Carl Spaatz for trials and evaluation by the U.S. 8th Air Force in Britain.
   The high-altitude performance improvement was astonishing: the Mustang X (AM208) reached 433 mph (697 km/h) at 22,000 ft and AL975 tested at an absolute ceiling of 40,600 ft.After sustained lobbying at the highest level, American production of a North American-designed Mustang, with the Packard Merlin V-1650 engine replacing the Allison, was started in early 1943. The pairing of the P-51 airframe and Merlin engine was designated P-51B or P-51C, B (NA-102) being manufactured at Inglewood, California, and C (NA-103) at a new plant in Dallas, Texas, in operation by summer 1943. The RAF named these models Mustang III. In performance tests, the P-51B reached 441 mph/709.70 km/h (exactly two-thirds supersonic speed at altitude) at 25,000 ft (7.600 m) and the subsequent extended range made possible by the use of drop tanks enabled the Merlin-powered Mustang to be introduced as a bomber escort.
   P-51Bs and Cs started to arrive in England in August and October 1943. The P-51B/C versions were sent to 15 fighter groups that were part of the 8th and 9th Air Forces in England, and the 12th and 15th in Italy (the southern part of Italy was under Allied control by late 1943). Other deployments included the China Burma India Theater (CBI).
   Allied strategists quickly exploited the long-range fighter as a bomber escort. It was largely due to the P-51 that daylight bombing raids deep into German territory became possible without prohibitive bomber losses in late 1943.
   A number of the P-51B and P-51C aircraft were fitted for photo reconnaissance and designated F-6C.

P-51D and P-51K

One of the few remaining complaints with the Merlin-powered aircraft was a poor rearward view. This was a common problem in most fighter designs of the era, which had only been recognized by the British after the Battle of Britain proved the value of an all-around view. In order to improve the view from the Mustang at least partially, the British had field-modified some Mustangs with fishbowl-shaped canopies called "Malcolm Hoods." Eventually all Mk IIIs, along with some American P-51B/Cs, were equipped with Malcolm Hoods.
A better solution to the problem was the "teardrop" or "bubble" canopy. Originally developed as part of the Miles M.20 project, these newer canopies were in the process of being adapted to most British designs, eventually appearing on late-model Spitfires, Typhoons and Tempests. North American adapted several NA-106 prototypes with a bubble canopy, cutting away the decking behind the cockpit, resulting in substantially improved vision to the rear. This led to the production P-51D (NA-109), considered the definitive Mustang.
A common misconception is that the cutting down of the rear fuselage to mount the bubble canopy reduced stability that required the addition of a dorsal fin to the forward base of the vertical tail. Actually, both earlier Bs and Cs and subsequent D/K models also experienced low speed handling problems that could result in an involuntary "snap-roll" under certain conditions of air speed, angle of attack, gross weight and center of gravity. Several crash reports tell of P-51Bs and Cs crashing because horizontal stabilizers were torn off during maneuvering. One report stated:

"Unless a dorsal fin is installed on the P-51B, P-51C and P-51D airplanes, a snap roll may result when attempting a slow roll. The horizontal stabilizer won't withstand the effects of a snap roll. To prevent recurrence the stabilizer should be reinforced in accordance with T.O. 01-60J-18 dated 8 April 1944 and a dorsal fin should be installed. Dorsal fin kits are being made available to overseas activities"

While some existing aircraft don't have the dorsal extension fitted, many were equipped at some point in their service or refurbishment with a taller tail, which provided a similar increase in yaw stability. Also, civilian-owned examples often have newer, lighter radios, an absence of external munitions and drop tanks, removed guns and armor plate and an empty or removed fuselage tank — reducing the need for the dorsal fin.
   Among other modifications, armament was increased with the addition of another two M2 machine guns, bringing the total to six. The inner pair of machine guns had 400 rounds each, and the others had 270 rounds, for a total of 1,880. In previous P-51s, the M2s were mounted at angles that led to frequent complaints of jamming during combat maneuvers. The new arrangement allowed the M2s to be mounted in a more standard manner that remedied most of the jamming problems. The .50 caliber Browning machine guns, although not firing an explosive projectile, had excellent ballistics and proved adequate against the Fw 190 and Bf 109 fighters that were the main USAAF opponents at the time. Later models had under-wing rocket pylons added to carry up to ten rockets per plane.
   The P-51D became the most widely produced variant of the Mustang. A Dallas-built version of the P-51D, designated the P-51K, was equipped with an Aeroproducts propeller in place of the Hamilton Standard propeller, as well as a larger, differently configured canopy and other minor alterations (the vent panel was different). The hollow-bladed Aeroproducts propeller was unreliable with dangerous vibrations at full throttle due to manufacturing problems and was eventually replaced by the Hamilton Standard. By the time of the Korean war most F-51s were equipped with "uncuffed" Hamilton Standard propellers with wider, blunt tipped blades. The photo reconnaissance versions of the P-51D and P-51K were designated F-6D and F-6K respectively. The RAF assigned the name Mustang IV to the D model and Mustang IVA to K models.
   The P-51D/K started arriving in Europe in mid-1944 and quickly became the primary USAAF fighter in the theater. It was produced in larger numbers than any other Mustang variant. Nevertheless, by the end of the war, roughly half of all operational Mustangs were still B or C models.
   Concern over the USAAF's inability to escort B-29s all the way to mainland Japan resulted in the highly classified "Seahorse" project. In late 1944 Naval Aviator (and later test pilot) Bob Elder flew carrier suitability trials with a modified P-51D. The project was canceled after U.S. Marines secured the Japanese island of Iwo Jima and its airfields, making it possible for standard P-51D models to accompany B-29s all the way to the Japanese home islands and back. ("Fly Navy" - Phil Kaplan, page 51)
   During 1945–48, P-51Ds were also built under licence in Australia by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation (see below).

The "lightweight" Mustangs

XP-51F, XP-51G and XP-51J

The USAAF required airframes built to their acceleration standard of 8.33 g (82 m/s²), a higher load factor than that used by the British standard of 5.33 g (52 m/s²) for their fighters. Reducing the load factor to 5.33 would allow weight to be removed, and both the USAAF and the RAF were interested in the potential performance boost.
   A subtle change made in the lightweight Mustangs was the use of an improved NACA 66 series airfoil and a slightly thinner wing than that used by earlier Mustangs.
   In 1943, North American submitted a proposal to re-design the P-51D as model NA-105, which was accepted by the USAAF. Modifications included changes to the cowling, a simplified undercarriage with smaller wheels and disc brakes, and a larger canopy. The designation XP-51F was assigned to prototypes powered with V-1650 engines (a small number of XP-51Fs were passed to the British as the Mustang V) and XP-51G to those with reverse lend/lease Merlin 145M engines.
   A third lightweight prototype powered by an Allison V-1710-119 engine was added to the development program. This aircraft was designated XP-51J. Since the engine was insufficiently developed, the XP-51J was loaned to Allison for engine development. None of these experimental "lightweights" went into production.

P-51H

The P-51H (NA-126) was the final production Mustang, embodying the experience gained in the development of the XP-51F and XP-51G aircraft. This aircraft, with minor differences as the NA-129, came too late to participate in World War II, but it brought the development of the Mustang to a peak as one of the fastest production piston engine fighters to see service.
The P-51H used the new V-1650-9 engine, a version of the Merlin that included Simmons automatic supercharger boost control with water injection, allowing War Emergency Power as high as 2218 hp (1,500 kW). Differences between the P-51D included lengthening the fuselage and increasing the height of the tailfin, which greatly reduced the tendency to yaw. The canopy resembled the P-51D style, over a somewhat raised pilot's position. Service access to the guns and ammunition was also improved. With the new airframe several hundred pounds lighter, the extra power and a more streamlined radiator, the P-51H was among the fastest propeller fighters ever, able to reach 487 mph (784 km/h or Mach 0.74) at 25,000 ft (7,600 m).
The P-51H was designed to complement the P-47N as the primary aircraft for the invasion of Japan with 2,000 ordered to be manufactured at Inglewood. Production was just ramping up with 555 delivered when the war ended. Production serial numbers:

P-51H-1-NA 44-64160 – 44-64179
P-51H-5-NA 44-64180 – 44-64459
P-51H-10-NA 44-64460 – 44-64714

Additional orders, already on the books, were cancelled. With the cutback in production, the variants of the P-51H with different versions of the Merlin engine were produced in either limited numbers or terminated. These included the P-51L, similar to the P-51H but utilizing the 2270 horsepower V-1650-11 Merlin engine, which was never built; and its Dallas-built version, the P-51M or NA-124 which utilized the V-1650-9A Merlin engine lacking water injection and therefore rated for lower maximum power, of which one was built out of the original 1629 ordered, serial number 45-11743.
Although some P-51Hs were issued to operational units, none saw combat in World War II, and in postwar service, most were issued to reserve units. One aircraft was provided to the RAF for testing and evaluation. Serial number 44-64192 was designated BuNo 09064 and used by the U.S. Navy to test transonic airfoil designs, then returned to the Air National Guard in 1952. The P-51H wasn't used for combat in the Korean War despite its improved handling characteristics, since the P-51D was available in much larger numbers and was a proven commodity.
Many of the aerodynamic advances of the P-51 (including the laminar flow wing) were carried over to North American's next generation of jet-powered fighters, the Navy FJ Fury and Air Force F-86 Sabre. The wings, empennage and canopy of the first straight-winged variant of the Fury (the FJ-1) and the unbuilt preliminary prototypes of the P-86/F-86 strongly resembled those of the Mustang before the aircraft were modified with swept-wing designs.

Operational history

U.S. operational service

At the Casablanca Conference, the Allies formulated the Combined Bomber Offensive (CBO) plan for "round-the-clock" bombing by the RAF at night and the USAAF by day. American pre-war bombardment doctrine held that large formations of heavy bombers flying at high altitudes would be able to defend themselves against enemy interceptors with minimal fighter escort, so that precision daylight bombing using the Norden bombsight would be effective.
   Both the RAF and Luftwaffe had attempted daylight bombing and discontinued it, believing advancements in single-engine fighters made multi-engined bombers too vulnerable, contrary to Giulio Douhet's thesis. The RAF had worried about this in the mid-1930s and had decided to produce an all night-bomber force, but initially began bombing operations by day. The Germans used extensive daylight bombing during the Battle of Britain in preparation for a possible invasion. Due to the high casualty rates, the Luftwaffe soon switched to night bombing (see The Blitz). Bomber Command followed suit in its raids over Germany.
   Initial USAAF efforts were inconclusive because of the limited scale. In June 1943, the Combined Chiefs of Staff issued the Pointblank Directive to destroy the Luftwaffe before the invasion of Europe, putting the CBO into full implementation. The Eighth Air Force heavy bomber force conducted a series of deep penetration raids into Germany beyond the range of available escort fighters. German fighter reaction was fierce and bomber losses were severe — 20 percent in an October 14 attack on the German ball-bearing industry. This made it impossible to continue such long-range raids without adequate fighter escort.
   The Lockheed P-38 Lightning had the range to escort the bombers, but was available in very limited numbers in the European theater due to its Allison engines proving difficult to maintain. With the extensive use of the P-38 in the Pacific Theater of Operations, where its twin engines were deemed vital to long-range "over-water" operations, nearly all European-based P-38 units converted to the P-51 in 1944. The Republic P-47 Thunderbolt was capable of meeting the Luftwaffe on more than even terms, but didn't at the time have sufficient range. The Mustang changed all that. In general terms, the Mustang was at least as simple as other aircraft of its era. It used a single, well-understood, reliable engine, and had internal space for a huge fuel load. With external fuel tanks, it could accompany the bombers all the way to Germany and back. Enough P-51s became available to the 8th and 9th Air Forces in the winter of 1943-44, and when the Pointblank offensive resumed in early 1944, matters changed dramatically. The P-51 proved perfect for the task of escorting bombers all the way to the deepest targets, thus complementing the more numerous P-47s until sufficient Mustangs became available. The Eighth Air Force immediately began to switch its fighter groups to the Mustang, first exchanging arriving P-47 groups for those of the Ninth Air Force using P-51s, then gradually converted its Thunderbolt and Lightning groups until by the end of the year 14 of its 15 groups flew the Mustang. Luftwaffe pilots attempted to avoid U.S. fighters by massing in huge numbers well in front of the bombers, attacking in a single pass, then breaking off the attack, allowing escorting fighters little time to react. While not always successful in avoiding contact with escort (as the tremendous loss of German pilots in the spring of 1944 indicates), the threat of mass attacks, and later the "company front" (eight abreast) assaults by armored Sturmgruppe Fw 190s, brought an urgency to attacking the Luftwaffe wherever it could be found. The P-51, particularly with the advent of the K-14 gunsight and the development of "Clobber Colleges" for the in-theater training of fighter pilots in fall 1944, was a decisive element in Allied countermeasures against the Jagdverbände.
   Beginning in late February 1944 Eighth Air Force fighter units began systematic strafing attacks on German airfields that picked up in frequency and intensity throughout the spring with the objective of gaining air supremacy over the Normandy battlefield. In general these were conducted by units returning from escort missions, but beginning in March many groups also were assigned airfield attacks instead of bomber support. On April 15 VIII FC began Operation Jackpot, attacks on specific Luftwaffe fighter airfields, and on May 21 these attacks were expanded to include railways, locomotives, and rolling stock used by the Germans for movements of materiel and troops in missions dubbed "Chattanooga". The P-51 also excelled at this mission, although losses were much higher on strafing missions than in air-to-air combat, partially due to the vulnerability of the Mustang's cooling system to small arms hits. Like other fighters using liquid cooled engines, the Mustang's coolant system could be punctured by a hit from a single bullet.
   The numerical superiority of the USAAF fighters, superb flying characteristics of the P-51 and pilot proficiency crippled the Luftwaffe. As a result, the fighter threat to US, and later British bombers, was greatly diminished by summer 1944.
   P-51s also distinguished themselves against advanced enemy rockets and aircraft. A P-51B/C with high-octane fuel was fast enough to pursue the V-1s launched toward London. The Me 163 Komet rocket interceptors and Me 262 jet fighters were considerably faster than the P-51, but not invulnerable. Chuck Yeager, flying a P-51D, was one of the first American pilots to shoot down a Me 262 when he surprised it during its landing approach.
   The Eighth, Ninth and Fifteenth Air Forces' P-51 groups, all but three of which flew another type before converting to the Mustang, claimed some 4,950 aircraft shot down (about half of all USAAF claims in the European theater) and 4,131 destroyed on the ground. Losses were about 840 aircraft.
   One of these groups, the Eighth Air Force's 4th Fighter Group, was the overall top-scoring fighter group in Europe with 1,016 enemy aircraft destroyed, 550 in aerial combat and 466 on the ground.
   In aerial combat, the top-scoring P-51 units (both of which exclusively flew Mustangs) were the 357th Fighter Group of the Eighth Air Force with 595 air-to-air combat victories, and the Ninth Air Force's 354th Fighter Group with 701, which made it the top scoring outfit in aerial combat of all fighter groups of any type. Martin Bowman reports that in the ETO Mustangs flew 213,873 sorties and lost 2,520 aircraft to all causes.
   P-51s were deployed in the Far East later in 1944, operating in close-support and escort missions as well as operating in the Tactical Photo Reconnaissance role.

Post-World War II

In the aftermath of World War II, the USAAF consolidated much of its wartime combat force and selected the P-51 as a "standard" piston engine fighter while other types such as the P-38 and P-47 were withdrawn or given substantially reduced roles. However, as more advanced jet fighters (P-80 and P-84) were being introduced, the P-51 was relegated to secondary status.
   In 1947, the newly-formed USAF Strategic Air Command employed Mustangs alongside F-6 Mustangs and F-82 Twin Mustangs, due to their range capabilities. In 1948, the designation P-51 (P for pursuit) was changed to F-51 (F for fighter) and the existing F designator for photographic reconnaissance aircraft was dropped because of a new designation scheme throughout the USAF. Aircraft still in service in the USAF or Air National Guard (ANG) when the system was changed included: F-51B, F-51D, F-51K, RF-51D (formerly F-6D), RF-51K (formerly F-6K), and TRF-51D (two-seat trainer conversions of F-6Ds). They remained in service from 1946 through 1951. By 1950, although Mustangs continued in service with the USAF and many other nations after the war, the majority of the USAF's Mustangs had been surplussed or transferred to the Reserve and the Air National Guard (ANG). During the Korean War, F-51s, though obsolete as fighters, were used as tactical bombers and reconnaissance aircraft. Because of its lighter structure and less availability of spare parts, the newer, faster F-51H wasn't used in Korea. With the aircraft being used for ground attack, their performance was less of a concern than their ability to carry a load.
   At the start of the Korean War, the Mustang once again proved its usefulness. With the availability of F-51Ds in service and in storage, a substantial number were shipped via aircraft carriers to the combat zone for use initially by both the Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF) and USAF. Rather than employing them as interceptors or "pure" fighters, the F-51 was given the task of ground attack, fitted with rockets and bombs. After the initial invasion from North Korea, USAF units were forced to fly from bases in Japan, and F-51Ds could hit targets in Korea that short-ranged F-80 jet fighters could not. A major concern over the vulnerability of the cooling system was realized in heavy losses due to ground fire. Mustangs continued flying with USAF, Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF), South African Air Force (SAAF) and Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) fighter-bomber units on close support and interdiction missions in Korea until they were largely replaced by Republic F-84 and Grumman Panther jet fighter-bombers in 1953. The South Africans continued to fly their 95 Mustangs in Korea but lost many of them by 1952.
   F-51s flew in the USAF Reserve and Air National Guard throughout the 1950s. The last American USAF Mustang was P-51D-30-NA Serial No. 44-74936, which was finally withdrawn from service with the West Virginia ANG in 1957. This aircraft is now on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. It is, however, painted as P-51D-15-NA Ser No. 44-15174.
   The final withdrawal of the Mustang from USAF dumped hundreds of P-51s out onto the civilian market. The rights to the Mustang design were purchased from North American by the Cavalier Aircraft Corporation, which attempted to market the surplus Mustang aircraft both in the U.S. and overseas. In 1967 and again in 1972, the USAF procured batches of remanufactured Mustangs from Cavalier, most of them destined for air forces in South America and Asia that were participating in the Military Assistance Program (MAP). These aircraft were remanufactured from existing original F-51D airframes but were fitted with new V-1650-7 engines, a new radio fit, tall F-51H-type vertical tails, and a stronger wing which could carry six 0.50-inch machine guns and a total of eight underwing hardpoints. Two 1000-pound bombs and six five-inch rockets could be carried. They all had an original F-51D-type canopy, but carried a second seat for an observer behind the pilot. One additional Mustang was a two-seat dual-control TF-51D (67-14866) with an enlarged canopy and only four wing guns. Although these remanufactured Mustangs were intended for sale to South American and Asian nations through the Military Assistance Program (MAP), they were delivered to the USAF with full USAF markings. They were, however, allocated new serial numbers (67-14862/14866, 67-22579/22582 and 72-1526/1541).
   The F-51 was adopted by many foreign air forces and continued to be an effective fighter into the mid 1980s with smaller air arms. The last Mustang ever downed in battle occurred during Operation Power Pack in the Dominican Republic in 1965, with the last aircraft finally being retired by the Dominican Air Force (FAD) in 1984.

Non-US service

The P-51 Mustang remained in service with more than 30 air forces after World War II; the last was retired from active service in the early 1980s. Here is a list of some of the countries that used the P-51 Mustang.

� The first Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) unit to use Mustangs was No. 3 Squadron RAAF, which converted to them at its base in Italy in November 1944. The RAAF had also decided to replace its P-40 Kittyhawks in the South West Pacific Area with P-51s, and ordered a total of about 500 Mustangs, which were to be built by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation (CAC), the only non-U.S. production line. In 1944, 100 P-51Ds were shipped from the U.S. in kit form to inaugurate production at Fishermans Bend, in Melbourne. CAC assembled 80 of these under the designation CA-17/Mark 20, the remaining 20 being kept unassembled as spare parts.

� CAC then produced 120 more P-51Ds on its own (reduced from an initial order for 170), which it designated CA-18/Mark 21, 22 or 23. (The RAAF used the serial number prefix A68 for all P-51s.) The Mk 22 was a photo reconnaissance variant and the Mk 23 had newer model British-made Merlin engines. In addition, 84 P-51Ks were also shipped direct to the RAAF from the USA. However, only 17 Mustangs reached the front line squadrons of the First Tactical Air Force by the time World War II ended in August 1945. The RAAF subsequently cancelled further orders for about 200 Mustangs. No. 77 Squadron RAAF also used P-51s extensively during the first years of the Korean War, before converting to Gloster Meteor jets.

: Nine Cavalier F-51D (including the two TF-51s) were given to Bolivia, under a program called Peace Condor.

: � Canada had five squadrons equipped with Mustangs during World War II. RCAF No. 400, 414 and 430 squadrons flew Mustang Mk 1s (1942-1944) and nos. 441 and 442 flew Mustang Mk IIIs and IVAs in 1945. Postwar, a total of 150 Mustang P-51Ds were purchased and served in two regular: No. 416 "Lynx" and no. 417 "City of Windsor" and six auxiliary fighter squadrons: no. 402 "City of Winnipeg," no. 403 "City of Calgary," no. 420 "City of London," no. 424 "City of Hamilton," no. 442 "City of Vancouver" and no. 443 "City of New Westminster." The Mustangs were declared obsolete in 1956; a number of special-duty versions served on into the early 1960s.

: Some of the P-51Cs and Ds were given to China by early 1945. Delivered from the U.S. 10th AF in India, those Mustangs were equipped to the 5th, 3rd and 4th FG of CAF to attack the Japanese targets in China. After the war, they were also used against the Chinese Communist Forces. When the Chinese Nationalist retreated from the Mainland, Many of them ended up in Taiwan when their pilots sided with Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist government. Further P-51s were acquired from the USAF and other sources. Some P-51s were subsequently lost to the Communist People's Liberation Army Air Force during the Nationalist retreat from the Chinese mainland.

: The Costa Rica Air Force flew four F-51s from 1955–64.

: Some reports claim that under the terms of the 1947 Rio Pact, Cuba was supplied with F-51D Mustangs. These reports appear to be erroneous. However, after the 1959 Cuban Revolution, Cuba's Fuerza Aerea Revolucionaria illegally acquired three ex-civilian Mustangs reputedly being bought in Canada by envoys of Fidel Castro. The P-51 Mustangs didn't enter service soon enough to see any action during the Cuban revolution. During the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Mustangs were damaged on the ground, and were repaired too late to participate in the fighting. They served with the Cuban air force until they were replaced with Russian-built equipment in the early 1960s.

: The Dominican Republic (FAD) was the largest Latin American air force to employ the F-51D with six aircraft acquired in 1948, 44 ex-Swedish F-51Ds purchased in 1948 and a further Mustang obtained from an unknown source. It was the last nation to have the F-51 Mustang in service, with some remaining in use as late as 1984.

: The FAS purchased five Cavalier Mustang IIs (and one dual control Cavalier TF-51) featured wingtip fuel tanks to increase combat range and up-rated Merlin engines. Seven P-51D Mustangs were also in service.

: In late 1944, the first French unit began its transition to reconnaissance Mustangs. In January 1945, the Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron 2/33 of the French Air Force took their F-6Cs and F-6Ds over Germany on photographic mapping missions. The Mustangs remained in service until the early 1950s when they were replaced by jet fighters.

: Guatemala (FAG) had 30 P-51s in service from 1954 to the early 1970s.

: Haiti had four Mustangs when President Paul Eugène Magloire was in power between 1950 and 1956, with the last retired in 1973-74 and sold for spares to the Dominican Republic.

: Seven Mustangs were acquired from private sources to fight in the so-called "Football War."

: Indonesia acquired some F-51s from the departing Netherlands East Indies Air Force in 1949/1950. The Mustangs were used against Commonwealth (RAF, RAAF and RNZAF) forces during the Indonesian confrontation in the early 1960s. The last time Mustangs were to be deployed for military purposes was a shipment of six Cavalier II Mustangs (without tip tanks) delivered to Indonesia in 1972-1973, which were replaced in 1976.

: A few P-51 Mustangs were illegally bought by Israel in 1948 for use in the War of Independence (1948) and quickly established themselves as the best fighter in the Israeli inventory. Further aircraft were bought from Sweden and Nicaragua but were replaced by jets at the end of the 1950s, but not before the type was used in the Suez Crisis, Operation Kadesh (1956). Reputedly, during this conflict, one daring Israeli pilot literally cut communications between Suez City and the Egyptian front lines by using his Mustang's propeller on the telephone wires.

: During the war, from 1943-45, Italian pilots faced an increasing number of Mustangs, but only in the last years were they the main threat, because P-38s and P-47s were still present in great numbers. Mustangs were generally quite superior to Italian fighters, both indigenous types and the Bf 109s given by Germany, but some Mustangs were lost as well in those aerial battles. No Italian pilot flew Mustangs before the end of the war. � Italy was a postwar operator of P-51Ds; deliveries were slowed by the Korean war, but between September 1947 and January 1951, by MDAP count, 173 examples were delivered. They were used in all the AMI fighter units: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 51 Stormo (Wing) and some in schools and experimentals units. Considered a "glamorous" fighter, P-51s were even used as personal aircraft by several Italian commanders. Some restrictions were placed on its use due to unfavorable flying characteristics. Handling had to be done with much care when fuel tanks were fully utilized and several aerobatic maneuvers were forbidden. Overall, the P-51D was highly rated even compared to the other primary postwar Italian fighter, the Supermarine Spitfire, partly because these P-51Ds were in very good condition in contrast to all other Allied fighters supplied to Italy. Phasing out of the Mustang began in summer 1958.

: The P-51C-11-NT "Evalina" marked as "278" (former USAAF serial: 44-10816) flown by 26th FS, 51st FG, was hit by gunfire on 16 January 1945 and belly landed on Suchon Airfield in China which was held by the Japanese. The Japanese repaired the aircraft, roughly applied Hinomarus and flew the aircraft to the Fussa evaluation centre (now Yokota Air Base) in Japan.

: The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force received 40 P-51s and flew them in the Indonesian conflict. When the conflict was over Indonesia received some of the ML-KNIL Mustangs.

: Nicaragua (GN) gained 26 Mustangs from Sweden in 1954 and used them until 1964.

: � New Zealand ordered 320 P-51 Mustangs as a partial replacement of its F4U Corsairs in the Pacific Ocean Areas theatre. Thirty were delivered in 1945 but the war ended before they entered service. The remainder were retained in the U.S. The 30 received were stored in their packing cases until 1950 when put into service with the New Zealand Territorial Air Force (TAF)'s Auckland, Wellington, Canterbury and Otago squadrons. The TAF was disbanded in 1957 and the Mustangs retired, one being retained by 42 Squadron for regular target towing duties, and the remainder being sold for scrap. RNZAF pilots in the Royal Air Force also flew the P-51 and at least one New Zealand pilot scored victories over Europe while on loan to a USAAF P-51 squadron. A Mustang is on display in the RNZAF Museum and three other privately owned Mustangs are airworthy in the country. The Mustangs were replaced by F-86 Sabres in the late 1950s.

: During World War II, five Polish Air Force in Great Britain squadrons used Mustangs. The first Polish unit equipped (7 June 1942) with Mustang Mk Is was Flight B of No. 309 Polish Army-Cooperation Squadron, followed by Flight A in March 1943. Subsequently, 309 Squadron was renamed No. 309 Polish Fighter-Reconnaissance Squadron and became part of Fighter Command. On 13 March 1944, No. 316 Polish Fighter Squadron received their first Mustang Mk IIIs; rearming of the unit was completed by the end of April. By 26 March 1943, No. 306 Polish Fighter Squadron and No. 315 Polish Fighter Squadron received Mustangs Mk IIIs (the whole operation took 12 days). On 20 October 1944, Mustang Mk Is in No. 309 Squadron were replaced by Mk IIIs. On 11 December 1944, the unit was again renamed, as No. 309 Polish Fighter Squadron. In 1945, No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron received 20 Mustangs Mk IV/Mk IVA replacements. Postwar, between 6 December 1946 and 6 January 1947, all five Polish squadrons equipped with Mustangs were disbanded. Poland returned approximately 80 Mustangs Mk IIIs and 20 Mustangs Mk IV/IVAs to the RAF, which transferred them to the U.S. government.

: The South African Air Force operated a number of Mustang Is and IIs (P-51As) in Italy and the Middle East during World War II. After VE-Day, these machines were soon struck off charge and scrapped. In 1950, 2 Squadron SAAF was supplied with F-51D Mustangs by the United States for Korean War service. The type performed well in South African hands before being replaced by the F-86 Sabre in 1952/1953.

: Within a month of the outbreak of the Korean War, 10 F-51D Mustangs were provided to the badly depleted Republic of Korea Air Force as a part of the Bout One Project. They were flown by both South Korean airmen, several of whom were veterans of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy air services during World War II as well as by U.S. advisers led by Major Dean Hess. Later, more were provided both from U.S. and from South African stocks, as the latter were converting to F-86 Sabres. They formed the backbone of the South Korean Air Force until they were replaced by Sabres.

P-51H Mustang

Popular culture

Ladies Courageous (1944), starring Loretta Young, the fictionalized story of the Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron depicts a unit of female pilots during WW2 who primarily flew bombers from the factories to their final destinations. Reissued as Fury in the Sky, has early-model P-51As used mainly as backdrops.

Fighter Squadron, (1948), depicted a P-47 unit based loosely on the 4th Fighter Group (sometimes known as "Blakeslee's Bachelors"). The 4th FG flew P-47s in combat from April 1943 to March 1944, when they converted to Mustangs. In this film, the German Bf 109s are actually painted P-51s. Much of what was depicted with the P-47s (for example, the fighter escorts going all the way to Berlin, one pilot bailing out over enemy territory and his buddy landing to pick him up) actually happened with P-51s in real life.

Dragonfly Squadron (1953): B-movie flick of Korean War featuring the P-51.

Battle Hymn (1956), is based on the real-life experiences of Lt. Col. Dean E. Hess (played by Rock Hudson) and his cadre of U.S. Air Force instructors in the early days of the Korean War, training the pilots of the Republic of Korea Air Force and leading them in their baptism of fire in F-51D/Ks.

Lady Takes a Flyer (1958), features a P-51D prominently in the final sequence when Lana Turner (as Magie Colby) crashes dramatically at the end of a perilous ferry flight to England.

Wings of Fire (1967), made-for-television air race melodrama with P-51 and F8F.

Cloud Dancer (1980): a melodramatic tale of aerobatic fliers includes aerial sequences with a P-51.

Memphis Belle (1990): Based on the acclaimed Second World War documentary, features P-51Ds as escorting fighters although they were not in the European theatre during the actual mission.

The Tuskegee Airmen (1995): The story of how a group of African American pilots overcame racist opposition to become one of the finest U.S. fighter groups in World War II, utilizes the P-51 as their primary mount although the 99th Squadron would have used P-39s during their North African stint.Further Information

Get more info on 'P-51 Mustang'.

External Link Exchanges

Do you know how hard it is to get a link from a large encyclopaedia? Well we're different and will prove it. To get a link from us just add the following HTML to your site on a relevant page:

<a href="http://p-51_mustang.totallyexplained.com">P-51 Mustang Totally Explained</a>

Then simply click through this link from your web page. Our crawlers will verify your link, extract the title of your web page and instantly add a link back to it. If you like you can remove the words Totally Explained and embed the link in article text.
As long as your link remains in place, we'll keep our link to you right here. Please play fair - our crawlers are watching. Your site must be closely related to this one's topic. Any kind of spamming, dubious practises or removing the link will result in your link from us being dropped and, potentially, your whole site being banned.